1
2
  -2023
  

[ (i):     ]
(     )
 :    : 80
:    ,             
           
-
1.              
2.      :
()    
()   
()       ?
()           ?
-
3.    :
()       
()        
2
2
()     
()     
4.           ,    
2   3      
-
5.     /   :
() 
() 
() 
()  
6.            
-
7.               
8.              
 
3
2
  -2023
  

[ (i):     ]
(     )
 :    : 80
:    ,             
          
-
1.              
:           
                    
                   
   ,              
"  "      ,           
                    
             ;      
                
                  
                
       :
4
2
1.   
o :      "A, A "   ,   
             
    ,     "   ,"   
     
o :              
,                
"A"  ,             ,
               
     
o    , "    ,"        
    ""  ,    ,       
  
o :           
        ,   "   " 
    ,     
2.   
o       "A         
A  A     "   ,       
    
o :           
      ,         
  ,    , "   ,"      
  "    "
o    , "    ,"     
            "     "
       
o :             
                
   ,        ,  
   
3.    
o        "  A   A   "
         ,     ,  
 ()             
5
2
o :             
    :             
     ,    , "  ,"    
    ;     
o :   , "  ,"      
              () 
   
o             
               
   ,         ,   
                   -
                  ;
,           - "  "   
          
1.    :     ,       
       ,          
  ,              
   ,            
2.  :   ""   ,        
                
               
3.           ,   , ,
                 
     ,      
4.     :    ,     
        ,   ,  
              
        
              ;    
              :
1.    :            
             ,  
                 
2.   :      ,      
               
6
2
        ,         
    ,           
3.   :            
       ,          
        ,        
 ,               ,     
   
4.      :        
   ,            
              
 
5.        ,     
        ,         
            ,     
           ,      
          
6.        - 
           , 
        ,      
              ,  
          ,        
   
7.  : ,           
                
  ,            
     ,         
                
,                 
              :
1.  :            
    ,           
          ,      
  ,         
2. : ,   " ",      
      "   "    ,    
7
2
 ,              
                
3.   :          
             ,   ,
       ,       

   ,             
      
             ,    
          - , -    -
, , ,            
  ,             
                   
      
2.      :
()    
()   
()       ?
()           ?
: ()   
           -       
                    
       -  -    ,   
      
     :
1.   :          
   ,         ,  "  
" ( )  "   " ( ),  "  "
( )
8
2
2.            
  ,        ,       
       ,       
 ,     
                  
                  
   ,            
   ,               
            
()   
  ,                
                 
          :   
1.  :              
  , "   "  ,   " "
2.  :         , "" 
              
   ,           :
    ,       ,  "" 
" "
           ,  " ", ""  ""
            ,  "" 
""
                 
     ,              
    
()       ?
                 
        
1. :            -  
             ,  
  ""    ,  " "       
            
9
2
2. :   ,            
   ""  -         , " "    
  , ,         
 :
 =           (  ,   
)
 =            (, "  ,"
"")
                    
            ,      
        ,    ,      
        
()           ?
                 - 
    ,    ,         
      
1.   ,   :          ( 
),         (  )   , ""  
    "- "  ""     ,  
  " "         ""    
     (      ),      
2.   ,   :  ,         ( 
 ),          (  )   ,  
""    " "      ,     
" "    ,          ,
             
                   
               
        ,          
       

 ,         ,      
                 , 
               
10
2
,      ,         
                 
           ,     
             
-
3.    :
()       
()        
()     
()     
: ()        
  ,                 
           :   

:               
()            ()    


:            ()    
   ()
       :
1.   ():           
     : "   "
o ,      ,       

2.   ():            
    : "     "
o            ,    
     
11
2
3.   (I):            
     : "    "
o          ,       
 
4.   (O):            
    : “     
o                  
    
   :
       :
: ()   ( )
: (    )   (   
)
           ,    
()        
            :     
     ,              
 
    :
1.  :      .
2.              
3. :     
  :
 :   .
 :   .
:  .
   
    (  )   ,       :
1.             :
12
2
o                 
        
o "   "  "   " ,   ""
         ,     

2.       ,         :
o     ()         , 
            
o :       "    ",  
          ,     
3.         :
o      (    ),    
  
o :"     "  "     "  
    ,        
4.     ,      :
o         ,      
o :"     "  "   "   
   "   "
5.         :
o             ,   
    
o "    "  "  -  " 
   
6.     ,      :
o   -            , 
            ,     
o :"    "  "   "    
    ,  "    "
()     
13
2
           :
1.      
2.      
        ""   ,    
    
  :
  ():
"   "
     :
1.      : "   "
2.   : " -  - "
:
" -  - "
              ,  
  ,    
 :
            ,     
  ,        
()     
               
      :
1.      (  ,   )
2.        (      )
  :
  ():
"   "
    :
1.  : "   -  "
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2
o        
2.       :
o "" "-"  
 :
"   -  "
:
            ,     
        ,      
 :
               
       
:
    :    (  )  
(  )       ,     :
 ,  ,    

  (Categorical Syllogism):        
  ,           
:               
,       
 ():            
   ,    ,    
           ,  ,  
                  
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2
4.           ,    
2   3      
:  ,              :
            ,        
  ( )               
            
  ,      2   3  ,      
 ,              
1.    ?
       :
1.   :           (  ,
   ”)
2.  :           (  , 
  ”)
3. :           (  , ",
  ")
       :
 :  .
   .
                
   :
 :    ( =  )
 :    ( =  )
:,  
2.     
  " "               ,
   ,    2    3      
  1          
 2:       
 :     
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2
 4           
3.     
        ,       :
1.         - ,    -    
     
2.    :              
    
3.    :            
  
4.    
   ""           
    :
:  ( S, P )
-:  ( S, P  )
-:  ( S, P )
-:  ( S, P  )
     ,           
       ,     , 
           AEO
      
5.     2
 2 ,               
          : AEE  EIO
 2     :
  ():    
  (E):       
 ():,     
:             
   "  "       ,   
    
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2
 2   EIO  :
  ():     
  (I):  
 ():,   
:  2           
,        ,     
6.     3
 3 ,              
       : AII  IAI
 3   AII  :
  ():  
  (I):   
 (I):,    
:             
       ()   
 3   IAI  :
  (I):  
  ():  
 (I):,  
            
,        
7.     
       ,       :
1.    :       : ,   
          
2.   :              
  ,             
    
3.  :             
               
             , 
 
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2
4.   :          
   (E  O ) ,        
        
5.       ,     
  ,     ,     

6.   :    (I  O ) ,     
        
8.  2   3    
 2   3  ,            
    ,          
        
 2 ,    AEE  EIO           
  ,            
 
 3 , AII  IAI              
  ,         

 2   3           ,
               
                 , 
                
  
 ,              
               
                 
19
2
-
5.     /   :
() 
() 
() 
()  
: ,   ,         
              
 ,
()  : 
  (1748-1832)           
                  
           
  :
1.   :            
  ,             
""  ,             
2.  :            
               
         :
o   .
o   .
o   .
o  (    )
o  (      )
o  (      )
3.  :           
,    ,            
  
20
2
4. :           
             , 
  ,            
          
 ,           ,     
                  
 
()   :  ( )
   (1806-1873)       ,    
          ,        

  :
1.       ()    ()   
               
  ,           ,   
      
  , "          ;    
      "
2.  :      (    
 )   ,       ,    
               
               
    ,            

3.   :          
               
  ,        -    
  ,           

4.             
          ,     
          
       
21
2
 ,           ,    
                
  
() 
:    ()
 ,     ,        ,  ,
                 
    ,              
  :
1.  ():         ,    
                
          (     
     ),          
   
2.   (  ):          
               
               
,     
3. :               
     -          ,  
                
    
4.      : ,      (   )
              -
         ()        , 
       ,     
5.   :       ()        
             
 ,        
 ,         ,       
              
    ,           
()  
               
           ,  
22
2
   ,           
    
    :
1.  :  ,          
  ,  , ,      
      
2.   :         
  , ,      
        
3.            
   ,    ,       
    
4.  :          ,
          -  
  ,          
     
5.           ,  
  , ,          
              , 
     
    :
          (,     
        )?
             , 
      ?
           ?
      :
    (      ), -
 (- )     (  )    
    :
              
 ,           
23
2
              
 ,    
              , 
,        

, ,               
              
    ,             -
    ,          
           ,    
      
  -           
                 
6.            
:: 18              
                 
               
   ,              
    ,            , 
 
          ,     
     
   :  
     ,        
  :
               
                
  ,        
24
2
  :  ,         
,   " "            
         ,      , 
        ,        
  :  ,         
            ,     
,                  
,                
 
    ,       ,   
   
   ?
               
 ,      :
:              
, "  "  
:          ,   ,  ,
               
   ,            
         , "     
,     "        
       
 ,                   
               , 
                
   
                  
   (  )           
    
     :
                
  (   )
25
2
,    : "            
    ?"   ,      ,  ,
  ,           ?
  "" ,          "" ,      
     
                
   ()   : "        "
,   ,   : "           
   ?"
        ,     -   
            ,     
                ,
       
 ,          ,        
    
  
                  (
)             ,      
     
    :
  ""       ,  ,     
 ,       
   ""               ,
          
             ,     
                  
,               
 ,              
    
               ,  
     ,             
       ,           
26
2
        ,         
  "    "        -      
   
    
              
   ""       ,       
            
  ,        ,         
 ,             
                ,   
    
          ,          
                  
                   
      
   
  ,         -     
        ,        ,
                
              
               
    ,             
  ,       ,       
,        ,    ,      
  ,             
                 
     ,              
          ,         ,
                  
 
     
             
 ,            ,  
      
27
2
                 
     ,          
                 
       ,         
 
,               
        ,         
   ,  -           
  ,                 
     ,     

 ,            ,    
             ,       
               
      ,            
,             
 ,           ,  
     ,           
     ,        
      ,         
 
-
7.               
:            
           -  
  ,          
               
  
28
2
 :  
       :
1. :              
                
             ,
       ,          
    
2. :             
               
,            
                
 
3. : "   "        
              
              

4.               
              
,             
    ,         
        
5. :             
               
             ,  
    ,       
6.  :            
              
       ,  ,     ,
     
   
              ,   
                
      ,         
    ,  ,           

29
2
  
1.  :            
 ,             
      ,        
2.  : -        ,  
        ,        
            ,  
                
3.  :       ,         
  ,         ,   
      ,      
   
4.  :            
         ,      
      
5.     ():        
      ,        , 
       PAS       ,
     
    
        ,   :
1. :               
  ,             
                
               
2.                ,
              
                
 ( )   (  )    
 
,         ,         
, -     ,         
                
      
30
2
3.   :             ,
               
             ,  
               
4.                
    ,         
                , 
        ,         
       
5.               
                 
              
               
 
 ,               
                  ,
             
    
              ,    
    ,          
    ,        
1.     , ,      
 -         - 
           ,  
           ,    
                
2.     :      ( 
    )    ,      ,
         ,     
      
3.     :        -
  ,         ,  
                ,
      ,   -  
          
31
2
      
         ,     
                
               
  
               ,
     ,           
               ,  
               

                
,              
           , , ,  
              
          ,        

           ,    , 
      ,        
   ,             
         
8.              
 
:         :  
               
 ,   ,          
         ,     
 ,            
            
1.       
  :           
         , , 
            
32
2
     ,       
   , ,         
 
       ,         
   
2.      
               
       ,        
        
    
1.           
    ,           
             

2.    ():      
              
   ,          
3.        ,      
         ,     ,
     
4.   :         
           

5.           
              

6.  :            
             
     
    
1.             
              
,        
33
2
2.     ,       ,   
 ,             

3. -  :            
,          
4.                
               
   
5.             
             
 
6.         ,     
 ,    ,       
     
3.       
     -          
               

    
1.            -   
  ,           
      
2. :           
      ,          
      
3. :         ,   
        
4.      ,      
      
5.        ,   
             
     
6.             
       ,      
34
2
    
1.   :         
           ,    
        
2.              
            
  
3.            , 
             
4.               ,
              

5.             ,  
  ,           
      
6.               
       
4.       
      -     ,  
    :
:             
          ,    -
    
             ,  
 ,               
:             
 ,           ,   ,
           
 :    ,       ,
   ,         ,  
,             
35
2
5.       
   ,        
   :
  :      ,     
              
  ,             
      ,       
             
 ,   , ,     
,   , , -  
 : ,         
     ,          
         ,       
       
6. 
               
  ,          ,  
       ,         -
       ,      
      ,        ,
                 
          
:             ( )      
         ,              